The government has provided a definition of accessibility:

“Accessibility allows autonomy and participation of people with disabilities, reducing or even eliminating, the discrepancies between the capacities, needs and desires on the one hand, and the different physical components, their organizational and cultural environment on the other. Access requires the implementation of the additional elements necessary for any person permanently or temporarily unable to move and free access and security of life and all places, services, products and activities. Society, involved in this effort of accessibility, also advances the quality of life of all its members. “

Access to a physical location for a physically disabled person. For example, for a disabled person in a wheelchair, the presence of one or more steps makes it impossible to access certain sites, it is necessary to have a sloping ramp or a lift

Availability of information for a sensory disability. For example, a visually impaired can not read a written text normal, you will need it in large letters on a contrasting background or a blind converted into spoken words or text in Braille. A hearing impaired who watches television can not hear the dialogue, it will be necessary to have a subtitle (or someone speaking in French Sign Language). In these two cases, the solution Braille or sign language is seductive, but incomplete: some blind people do not know Braille well; some deaf people do not know sign language.

In France, in October 2005, there have been many articles (in the media, newspapers and television) on the disabled, for example, access to railway stations, disabled sports, football for the blind , physically disabled golf.

According to the regulations, there is the Order of 1 August 2006 and its various modifications for accessibility for people with mobility to establishments open to the public (ERP) and public use facilities (IOP) units are also involved. Any building permit for an ERP / IOP must consist of a specific folder (Plans and Instructions) to meet regulatory requirements.

In Europe, 2003

The EU decided in December 2001 that 2003 is European Year of Disabled Persons.

Generally refers to accessibility of all economic opportunities, material, instrumental, cultural or social available to a disabled person

Access to a physical location

For a physically disabled person

The disabled access is a public issue on the agenda of the French government since 1975 through the adoption of Law No. 75-534 of 30 June 1975 orientation for people with disabilities.

Two sections of the Act include provisions relating to the built environment (Article 49) and transport (Article 45). A process of progressive adaptation of life was initiated.

Each new construction of buildings open to the public, dwelling buildings and workplaces hosting more than 20 people had to be accessible. The work in these buildings would be an opportunity for development.

The legal obligation on transport was much weaker: the framework law of 30 June 1975 referred to decrees. An interdepartmental group with representatives from the French ministries, associations of persons with disabilities, transport operators and manufacturers decided in 1977 that the goal was unrealistic of the law for all persons with disabilities. It defines two types of technical solutions for two distinct populations:

Development of transport services for people with disabilities self, the creation of specialized services for people with disabilities with non-autonomous wheelchair were stereotypes.

In the 1970s, the development of ways to access conventional public transport was only one of several means (taxis, transport specialist operating in transport demand, promotion of the private car) to increase the mobility of people with disabilities.

French policy was reformed in 2005 by the Disability Act which requires the implementation of the accessibility of life (public buildings, conventional transport) by 2015.

In addition, Law No. 2009-323 of 25 March 2009 (known Boutin Act or Act Molle) allows French administration to waive the rules of the planning document for the work necessary to allow access for people with disabilities an existing dwelling.

Cars and People With Disabilities

There are also cars adapted to certain physical disabilities. In the past, the brand DAF manufactured cars are best suited for some minor physical disabilities.

In Prague, an example of a handicapped parking pass with Physics dedicated to the sidewalk.

Today, there are different adjustments for physical disabilities of all kinds, and technology has evolved so that it is now possible to drive a vehicle, even for someone with small upper and very little force, for example using a small wheel or joystick (joystick) the latter solution is not accepted in all countries. But in this case, there remains the small-wheel, kind of disc the size of a small plate with a handle (like the wheel of a construction vehicle). This system is directly connected to the steering column and is one with the real wheel of the car. All with a steering pushed to its maximum. So with little strength and with very small movements, it is possible to direct the vehicle in the same way as a normal drive.

It is necessary that a car parking of motor vehicles are reserved for people with disabilities carry the European card “GIC-GIG” and these places should be larger (3.30 m) to allow disabled people in wheelchairs out of their vehicle. The government has introduced regulations that, especially in France.

The Train and the Disabled

Such devices: wagon lift to transport a wheelchair from the dock to the train (TGV or other)

Businesses and People with Disabilities

1 January 2015, all public buildings (ERP) should be able to accommodate all persons with disabilities, regardless of the nature of it (motor, auditory, visual or mental). Less than four years of the deadline, and while the period of 10 years left to institutions to comply with accessibility rules might seem reasonable, many operators are still not making the adjustments required.

Representation of the Problem to the General Public

In the episode “The Wheelchair” (# 18) of the U.S. series So Little to Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen , one of the twins posing as a disabled wheelchair and indignant in the number of inaccessible restaurants the disabled. This is one of the few movies where this problem is discussed.

For visually impaired

All schools affiliated to the French Federation of Associations of Guide Dogs (FFAC) call free guide dogs to blind them so request.

On the banks of Metro, the band podotactiles the edge of platforms enable visually impaired to get some distance from the dock.

For the metro in Paris, there are relief maps in some stations, for use by blind people.

The tramway is a means of transport more accessible for the disabled as the metro and buses.

Children with disabilities

Access to a school, a nursery or a holiday resort.

Example: In Canada, the Society for Disabled Children has a center and a resort (the center Papillon) for children with disabilities.

Primary and Autism

For some cases of autism, it is possible to put them in school, but a person may need to help them and give them access to education. This already exists in France.

Access to Information

For a blind

There are machines to read. A reading machine combines a scanner that scans printed text, software, optical character recognition (OCR) that converts text image provided by the scanner and a voice synthesizer which reproduces sound in a text. Some libraries are equipped with such machines (e.g. the library of the Association Valentin-Hauy Beaugrenelle or library managed by the mayor of Paris). The manual for these machines is written in Braille.

Eticode: the bar code in the service of people with disabilities

Given the widespread use of bar codes in the retail sector, it has been undertaken to implement this technique to facilitate access to information by blind people and, more broadly, for those prevented to read printed materials. This project Eticode, The principle is that the blind person uses a barcode reader to read the bar code standards placed on all items of trade and thus access to product information. Combined with the ability to print low-cost ordinary labels for marking all kinds of items and / or personal documents, such use of bar codes enables the Blind.

• Recognizing the everyday consumer items,
• Organize their personal belongings,
• Archive and retrieve documents,
• Take charge of their health (identification of medicine boxes, access to online data).

For Visually Impaired

There is Video Magnifier to magnify a document (text or image). The person can adjust the magnification factor. There is self-Video Magnifier and other connected to a computer. Some libraries are equipped with this device (e.g. the library of the Association Valentin Hauy- Vaugirard or library managed by the mayor of Paris).

For Hearing Impaired

Several jurisdictions French 6 have established hotlines video-interpretation, that is to say, a video conference with an interpreter graduate. This system allows deaf and hearing impaired, communicating in sign language, to appear without an appointment to administrative procedures and collect information in the same way that the public hearing. In addition, in the workplace, are the solution offered by the relay centers (including Websourd or Tadeo). With these platforms, a deaf or hearing impaired employee can make and receive phone calls, participate in business meetings and attend professional training courses. Whatever the mode of communication chosen by the deaf or hard of hearing (sign language or instant transcription of speech), the words of the hearing person resulted in a video-interpreter or transcribed written through to operator in stenotype or voice recognition. This system is completely remote and guarantees the full transcript of the speech in full transparency.

Disability law of 11 February 2005 applies to public and private services that must be accessible to persons with disabilities in general and those deaf in particular. Based on the same principle as the solution or Websourd Tadeo, systems Acceo and Elision enable companies and public services to meet their legal obligations and to make available to their customers or users who are deaf and / or hearing impaired.

It is necessary that programs from television to be captioned. In France, the second string, it has existed for many years a newscast with a person at the background that translates sign language.

Access To A Computer

There is a need for website designers provide for the accessibility of web content. The same goes for software developers.

There are a multitude of keyboards or keyboard equivalents based on very different handicaps that exist (with visual, motor and mental).

It is also necessary that disabled people can use a computer: for the visually impaired, they exist for screen readers, paying (the software Jaws is the best known) or free (NVDA or No Access Desktop Video). The most ambitious and most attractive Orca is a Linux system for integrating accessibility magnifier, a screen reader, keyboard with sticky keys. KMouth also exists, allowing a vocalize written text; this is for people with speech deficiencies.

For epileptic photosensitive, the fact of working time on a screen can have negative effects. This does a certain type of epilepsy.

In the U.S., the section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 regulates the accessibility of federal sites for the disabled.

Vegetative propagation is primarily a natural phenomenon and often has long been used by man to clone plants (cuttings, layering), and more recently by in vitro culture. It is the basis for much biotechnology plant.

These forms of vegetative propagation is a fast and efficient way to invade a middle ground or other colonized by life (water, rocks ..), but with the risk that these crops are ravaged by an herbivore or pathogen that is adapted to .

Vegetative propagation is a natural process found mainly in herbaceous and woody plants, and is mostly involved structural changes of the stem, the roots may also contribute to vegetative propagation and in some species, and the leaves are used. The new plants are clones of the mother plant; you can not talk about reproduction. The new plants are new individuals; the process appears to reset the “clock cells” of the plant.

Techniques of fragmentation of the body

Cuttings are a method of vegetative propagation of certain plants of giving birth to a new individual (child of the individual mother plant) from one organ or body fragment isolated. It is a clone: ​​the cutting is genetically identical to the parent plant. Cuttings are through cellular dedifferentiation at the meristem. The cuttings may be natural or artificially induced (by gardeners or nursery).

Layering

The layering is a technique of vegetative propagation to multiply a plant by placing a branch still attached to the foot of the mother plant in the substrate moist. This technique can be practiced for many climbers included as an example: ivy, Virginia creeper, and jasmine. The plant obtained by this technique will be genotypically identical to the mother plant from which it originates.

Grafting

The grafting is a technique of vegetative propagation by doing a transplant that is to say to put a graft from a plant in another plant called rootstock for qualities in the plant. Warning: the two plants should be the same botanical family.

Formation Of Specialized Organs

Rhizomes

These are horizontal underground stems growing with leaves reduced to scales on which the buds appear. These are permanent structures (living several years), which often adventitious roots. They differ in that much of the tubers.

Runners

The stolons are horizontal stems growing (at ground level) and whose leaves are reduced to scales, the terminal bud is rooted and gives a new individual, and the individuals remain attached to each other by stolon at least temporarily. Runners must be cut once the roots are well trained if you want a good result for the next fruit.

Stolons Air:

Wild Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), saxifrage bentgrass (Saxifraga stolonifera), dwarf Pilea (Pilea pumila)

Underground runners:

Oyat (Ammophila arenaria )

Bulbils

The bulbils are buds adventitious accumulating reserves and providing vegetative propagation.

Discharges

Some plants emit young plants on the sides called “waste “,” suckers  “or”  suckers  “if they grow from roots. Plants of the family of Bromeliads, for example, emit discharges during flowering, as they die from it.

Keiki

The keikis are small plants that appear on the flower heads of certain orchids.

Eg butterfly orchids (Phalaenopsis)

Propagules

These are small rounded masses of cells produced in baskets propagules. These bodies are found in Bryophytes and Chromista.

The Hormogonies

In some algae fragment of a thallus may become detached and give a whole individual. This fragment is called colonial hormogonie.

In just 20,000 years, the average temperature of land is increased by 6 ° C, with a corresponding rise in sea level and warming of the oceans. Despite the warming could be triggered by many causes, it is believed that were the strong main volcanic activity and the emission of methane gas that was stored in clath-rates in ocean sediments, and that could increase warming by releasing large amounts of atmospheric carbon depleted in the isotope carbon-13 . In addition, atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 increased significantly, disrupting the cycle and causing the elevation of the lisoclina, and a shortage of oxygen in the deep ocean that eventually provoked the majority of marine extinctions.

Name

At first, the absence of precise dating, the PETM was located in the late Paleocene, denominating Upper Paleocene Thermal Maximum. However, later adopted the name most Maximum text was the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal, as the boundary between the two periods was officially defined to coincide with the moment of greatest increase in carbon-12 and this fact the cause of climate event in question. However, in other publications to create more convenient to use the name of the Initial Eocene Thermal Maximum, as the absolute maximum temperatures are reached at the beginning of this period, after the release of carbon-12 to the atmosphere.

Temporary Stage

Given the uncertainties in radiometric dating, the maximum Paleocene-Eocene thermal occurred between 55.8 and 55.0 million years before our era. It lasted about 20,000 years, and was preceded by a longer period than 6 million years of gradual global warming that began in the mid-Paleocene, and reached its highest expression in the “Eocene Climatic Optimum” (several million years after the PETM). However, during this period, there were also several cooling events such as the Elmo event. During the first 1,000 years of the PETM, it is estimated that were released into the oceans and the atmosphere between 1,500 and 2,000 gigatons of carbon (~ 2 Gt / year), emission rate four times lower than that emitted in 2005 by human activity (7.8 Gt / year).

Land Disposal

During the Eocene, the provision of the planet was significantly different. The Isthmus of Panama did not exercise even a bridge between North America and South America, allowing the transit of waters between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific. On the other hand, the Drake Passage was obstructed, preventing thermal isolation of Antarctica. This fact, coupled with high levels of CO2, indicating that there was no major ice sheets, so that the planet had no ice, then, almost in its entirety.

Evidence and timing

The strongest evidence to confirm the existence of climate change is provided by the negative change in the record of carbon-13, the isotope most common carbon, with a negative excursion, sudden and pronounced between -2 and -3 ‰. This massive injection of carbon depleted in carbon-13 involves the release of large amounts of carbon-12, at least 6800 Gt on the atmosphere and oceans during the 20,000 years it lasted.

The chronology of the relative decrease in carbon-13 in the PETM was calculated two different ways, complementary. The most important of these is the ODP Core 690 (made in the Weddell Sea); for the period is almost exclusively based on this record, though initially was calculated using an approximation taking into account a constant rate of sedimentation.

Later another different model came, assuming that the flow of helium-3 is constant, since this isotope of helium is produced by the sun constantly, and there is no reason to believe that major changes occur in the fluctuations of the solar wind during that brief period.

Both models have their shortcomings, but agree on major issues. Among the points that match, it is noteworthy that both agree that carbon release occurred in two stages, each lasting approximately 1,000 years, separated by a period of 20,000 years. The models differ mainly in the estimated recovery time, ranging from 150,000 for the first 20 and 30,000 years for the second model. Other theories suggest that the warming took place 3,000 years before the release of carbon -12, but the root causes remain uncertain. Studies have been conducted in the Spanish Pyrenees to confirm the increase in CO 2 during the PETM.

Effects

Climate

Graph showing the temperature record of the seafloor. The maximum Paleocene-Eocene Thermal is represented by the symbol “PETM.”

The average global temperature by 6 ° C increased dramatically over a period of just 20,000 years. This calculation is based on the values ​​of Mg / Ca and the concentration of the isotope oxygen-18, which is the most used to calculate temperatures in the Eocene, as ice because of the small gain in safety calculations, remaining constant concentration of oceanic oxygen-18.

Further analysis focused on the composition of the flora, as well as the size and shape of their leaves, show a similar result: an increase of 5 ° C, besides revealing that at the start of the PETM the rains were scarce but, over time, progressively increased. Due to rising temperatures, the ice began to melt, causing the reduction in albedo, which in turn led to a rise of temperatures in a process of positive feedback. This caused the temperature increase was greater at the poles, reaching annual average temperatures between 10 and 20 ° C. 26 The heating of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean was such that came to harbor life forms typical of the tropics such as dinoflagellates , reaching temperatures above 22 ° C.

Temperature not only increased but so did the humidity, due to increased evaporation rates, more pronounced in the tropics. An isotope of hydrogen, the deuterium (2 H), reveals that this moisture was transported to the poles, thus explaining the heavy rains that occurred in the Arctic Ocean.

Oceans

Despite the lack of ice, sea level rose significantly due to increased temperature. Proof of this is the displacement of palynomorphs (particle size of a grain of pollen) of the Arctic Ocean, reflecting a decrease of terrestrial organic matter compared to marine organic matter.

At the beginning of the PETM, the pattern of ocean circulation changed dramatically in a period of less than 5,000 years. The flow direction is reversed, causing for example that in the Atlantic Ocean bottom current flow from the north to the south, as had always happened in reverse. These effects lasted at least for 40,000 years. This change in the flow of hot water makes the deep ocean warming worse. The chemical composition of the oceans was also greatly altered.

In most parts of the oceans, especially in the North Atlantic Ocean, the bioturbation (the reprise of material, usually toxic, which is stored under the sediment) was almost nonexistent. This could be due to changing ocean circulation, which caused the ocean floor to increase its temperature, and thus harbored barely oxygen (anoxia). However, in some parts of the oceans bioturbation did not cease.

Another effect of the PETM on the ocean environment was to raise the limit of the lisoclina. The lisoclina indicates the depth to which spontaneously dissolved carbonate in the oceans. Today, this limit is 4 km below the ocean surface, which is very similar to the average depth of the oceans.

This depth depends, among other factors, temperature and the amount of CO 2 dissolved, so that both factors raised the lisoclina increasingly toward the ocean surface, causing the dissolution of carbonates in the deep water.

This acidification deep water can be seen in the strata of the ocean floor (if bioturbation has not been particularly active since in that case the evidence would be destroyed), it shows a quite pronounced change, going from a gray carbonates to reddish carbonates and clay , then returned back to the Grizzlies.

These evidences are much clearer in the North Atlantic Ocean than any other, it follows that the acidification was much more pronounced there. In some areas of the southeast Atlantic, the rise lisoclina reached 2 km in just a few thousand years.

The PETM occurred extinction of 35-50% of benthic foraminifera in a span of 1,000 years, the highest percentage in the mass extinction of Cretaceous-Tertiary which occurred about 10 million years ago. In contrast, planktonic foraminifera diversified, and dinoflagellates and mammals thrived. Also noteworthy is the growth of bacteria.

It is difficult to explain the extinctions of marine bottom organisms, since many of them were only regional, affecting mainly those distributed to the North Atlantic Ocean. This means that, unlike the temperature, you can not make general assumptions of the reduction of oxygen, or carbon due to corrosivity of unsaturated carbonates in the deep ocean.

The only factor is the increase in global temperature, and it seems that all the blame falls on this element. The North Atlantic regional extinctions are attributed, in general, the high level of anoxia in the deep waters.

Increased levels of CO 2 produced an acidification of surface waters, which was extremely harmful to corals. It has been shown experimentally that it is also very harmful to the plankton limestone.

However, the acids used in the laboratory to simulate the natural increase in acidity that would result from increased concentrations of CO 2 could have yielded misleading results. Proofs of this are the coccolithophores, which became more abundant in acidified waters.

Interestingly, the calcareous nannoplankton not attributed any change in its distribution by acidification during the PETM, as it did with the coccolithophores. Acidification, however, resulted in a significant increase in algae calcified, and also, to a lesser extent, foraminiferal limestone.

The increase in mammals is another interesting aspect. No evidence was found of any increase in the rate of extinction among terrestrial organisms. Many of the major orders of mammals, including artiodactyls, the horses and primates, emerged and spread rapidly around the globe between 13,000 and 22,000 years after the onset of the PETM. This diversification and dispersal of primates was an aspect key to human evolution.

Causes and Theories

There are many causes that could cause or intensify the PETM, which makes it difficult to clearly determine which of them have much impact. Global temperatures increased steadily worldwide, causing a series of events exacerbated by mechanisms of positive feedback. To determine these factors, it has resorted to the isotope mass balance of carbon, as carbon cycle can vary over relatively short periods. The relative concentration of carbon-13 fell between -2 ‰ and -3 ‰, and analyzing the carbon, we can consider what mass of the reserve would be required to produce the effect. The only assumption that is part of the mass of carbon contained in the atmosphere and oceans during the Paleogene was the same as the current, which is really difficult to confirm.

Volcanic Activity

In order to produce such a disturbance in the concentration of carbon-13, according to this theory, the volcanoes should have expelled around 1,500 gigatons of carbon over the two periods of 1,000 years. For a more comprehensive view of this figure: it is a rate 200 times higher than the rest of the Paleogene, although this amount is unlikely, as they have not found evidence of volcanic activity of this magnitude in the entire history of the Earth.

However, about one million years before the PETM, a major volcanic activity began to ravage the east of Greenland, but alone can not explain the speed at which warming took place. Even in the case of the 1,500 gigatons had suddenly been pushed once, it would take other factors that had led to positive feedback mechanisms to make the alteration has been observed in the isotope of carbon.

Moreover, it has been suggested that surges of volcanic activity were associated with the activity of the rift continental ocean, which expelled magma hot on carbon-rich sediments, which would have triggered the release of methane. Other phases much more late volcanic activity would have caused the expulsion of methane gas as much, causing other periods during the Eocene global warming, such as ETM2 (stands for Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 , commonly Elmo event ).

Release of Methane Gas

Clathrates of methane in full combustion. It produces water and carbon dioxide in large quantities, being in all probability one of the main causes of the PETM.

None of the theories can explain, by itself, the tour of the isotope carbon-13 and the warming that occurred during the PETM. The positive feedback mechanism could further amplify the initial disturbance were the clathrate, according to the so-called clathrate gun hypothesis. The methane, which accumulates continuously in the sediments of the deep ocean due to the decomposing organic, is stable in water at a certain pressure and temperature, forming clusters in the state solid.

As the temperature increases, the pressure exerted decays, the configuration is no longer stable, and clathrates dissociate, causing the release of methane into the atmosphere. Since clathrates themselves have a -60 ‰ in the concentration of carbon-13 with respect to the atmosphere, small quantities of these materials could produce large changes in relative carbon-13.

 In addition, methane is a potent greenhouse gas , about eight times more effective than carbon dioxide , so that, being expelled into the atmosphere, could cause a major global warming, in turn, warm the oceans and give rise more methane, destabilizing the system. It has been estimated that the ocean would have taken about 2,300 years to reach the temperature that would allow clathrates dissociate from its background, although this calculation is based on a series of assumptions.

For this hypothesis is valid, the oceans should show signs of warming before the carbon isotope excursion, as the methane takes a while until you manage to enter the atmosphere. Until relatively recently, the evidence showed that both peaks were simultaneous, minus support for the theory. However, recent studies have failed to detect a short period of time between the initial heating and the relative decrease in carbon-13.

Analysis of these records reveals another interesting fact: the planktonic foraminifera recorded small changes in the values ​​of the isotope before the benthic foraminifera, which live in ocean sediments. The shells of these organisms reflect these changes to rust, so a gradual release of methane from the ocean floor would have to be oxidized first shells of benthic foraminifera. The fact that planktonic foraminifera were the first to show these signs of oxidation is that the methane was released so quickly that its oxidation exhausted all the oxygen of the seafloor, allowing, after this, methane reached the atmosphere without oxidation, which react with atmospheric oxygen. This analysis suggests that the process of methane release lasted about 10,000 years.

Impact of Comet

The orbital variations show the relationship between the eccentricity orbital (blue) and temperature (black). One theory proposes that relationship as one of the causes of the PETM.

Another theory is that a comet rich in carbon-12 hit on the land surface and initiated global warming. Even assuming that the size of the comet was found on the border to stop the catastrophe no footprint on the planet (according to the theory about 10 km), after the event and feedback processes occur, still would be required 100 gigatons of carbon would have to come extra terrestrial activity.

However, this theory still has some unresolved issues and does not explain in detail what happened. In theory, the comet would have caused the formation of layer clay of 9 meters thick extremely magnetized, but other sources believe that this layer was formed at a rate too slow to be a consequence of the impact, attributing its creation to the bacteria, which flourished during heating.

On the other hand, the failure of iridium (reliable indicator of impacts on the planet) has been observed in Spain is too small to confirm the impact of the comet.

Orbital Cycles

Due to the existence of other global-scale climate changes, such as ETM2 (event Elmo), it has been hypothesized that these changes are repeated regularly, and are a result of orbital variations in the eccentricity of the orbit Earth. The proximity to the Sun that solar radiation was increased, and thus the temperature, the threshold for trespassing and unleash the various processes of positive feedback.

Burning of peat

It was to postulate a theory that the PETM was caused by the combustion of large amounts of peat, an organic material rich in carbon. However, to produce a relative decrease of carbon-13 that took place, it would need to burn 90% of the biomass land at that time. Since during the PETM plants grew wildly, this theory has been refuted.

Recovery Period

The registration of the isotope carbon-13 shows a recovery time between 30,000 and 150,000 years, it is relatively short period when compared with the retention of carbon in the atmosphere today (between 100,000 and 200,000 years). Any satisfactory explanation of this rapid recovery time should include an effective feedback mechanism.

The most probable of recovery would come from an increase in biological productivity, rapidly transporting carbon to the ocean floor. This would have the help of global temperatures and high levels of CO 2, as well as an increase in nutrient supply (high temperatures and high rainfall would cause a continental erosion and volcanic activity may have provided more nutrients). Proof of increased biological productivity could be the barium; however, the increase of this element could also be due to the release of dissolved barium with seafloor methane. Furthermore, diversification is evidence that productivity increased on particularly in coastal areas where marine flora remained warm and fertile, offsetting the reduction in productivity in the ocean floor.

Finally, in 1655, Christian Huygens suggested that the appendices were the visible sign of a disk of thin, flat material, separated from the planet and provisions of this equatorial plane. Depending on what were the positions of Saturn and Earth in their orbits around the Sun, the inclination of the disk relative to the Earth vary, hence their appearance also varies from a thin line to a wide ellipse. The cycle of the rings like Saturn’s orbit lasted 30 years.

During the next two centuries it was assumed that the disc was a continuous layer of material. The first objection against the hypothesis was soon, however, arising. In 1675, Giovanni Cassini found a dark band (the division that bears his name) that separated the disk into two concentric rings.

In the late eighteenth century, Pierre-Simon Laplace showed that the combined forces of sufficient gravity in the planet Saturn and the rotation of the disc to tear a single layer of material. In principle, any particle in the disk maintains its radial distance from Saturn because there are two forces are balanced. Gravity pulls the particle inward, the centrifugal force pushes out. The centrifugal force comes from the rotational speed; hence the disc has to be spinning. However, in the case of a rigid rotating disk, the forces are balanced only for a certain radial distance. Thus, Laplace proposed the hypothesis that the rings of Saturn were formed by many thin rings, enough each to support the slight imbalance of forces that appear along the radial width.

The last step towards the modern view of the rings came in 1857 when James Clerk Maxwell won the Adams Prize of Cambridge University for his mathematical proof that narrow rings were actually formed by many small bodies that orbit remained independent. The experimental verification of this hypothesis came in 1895 when American astronomers James E. Keeler and William W. Campbell deduced the velocity of the particles in the rings from their Doppler shift, or modification of the wavelength of the spectral lines of sunlight the particles reflect back to Earth. They found that the rings around Saturn revolved at a speed different from that of the planet’s atmosphere. In addition, the internal parts of the rings spinning faster than external, prescribed by the laws of physics for particles in independent orbits.

Features of the Rings

The main body of Saturn’s ring system includes the bright rings A and B, low opacity. Media from each other a stretch of 5,000 miles, the Cassini Division, a region relatively transparent, but not empty at all. The main body of the Saturn system also includes the C ring, weaker and less opaque, that is within the inner edge of ring B. He has a degree of opacity comparable to that of the Cassini Division. The even weaker ring D is in the ring C. Before the Voyager pass through the vicinity of Saturn already recognized the structural configuration of the planet’s rings A, B, C and D, observable from Earth, and Cassini Divisions and Encke. Taken together, the main rings of Saturn (A, B and C) are about 275,000 miles wide ring, which represents three quarters of the distance separating Earth from the Moon. The ring is divided into two parts by the Encke Division.

The photographs of the rings with high resolution, taken by Voyager and Cassini spacecraft provided many new features:

• Three very pale rings, E, F and G, which are outside of the ring A. In September 2006 another ring was found between the F and G.
• Appeared narrow annular regions of different brightness and opacity, as the grooves of a gramophone disc.
• We found also deviations from the circular shape.
• Appear knots, braids and twists in the F ring
• The ring has a uniform brightness in front of the B ring that has variations along their radial distances.
• In the outer ring there is a real belt “moonlets,” ranging in size from that of a small truck to a stadium
• In the B ring had radially oriented shocks, wedge-shaped.
• Groups of bands caused by resonance of satellites.
• Shepherd satellites producing gaps in the rings or fixing their edges.

The outer ring of the Encke Division shows a weak group of bands. The bands are tightly packed into the orbit of the satellite Prometheus, which was discovered in images taken by Voyager 1. It is believed that the bands are caused by resonances in the ring due to the gravitational effects of the satellite. The edge of ring shepherding satellite is maintained by the Atlas.

Pandora and Prometheus Image guarding the F ring of Saturn.

In addition, satellites Prometheus and Pandora are the shepherd satellites respectively inner and outer shaping the F ring of Saturn is 80 km wide.

Most of the gaps in Saturn’s rings are caused by the presence of shepherd satellites. Mimas, for example, is responsible for the existence of the greatest of them, the Cassini Division.

In comparison, the thickness of Saturn’s rings is negligible. The upper limit of its vertical extent has been estimated at about one kilometer. In relation to its width, the rings are thousands of times thinner than a razor blade.

Composition of the Rings

These rings have ability to reflect or absorb light of different wavelengths to deduce information about the composition of the particles of Saturn’s rings. For example, the rings A, B and C are poor reflectors of sunlight to certain wavelengths of near infrared. Because it is a characteristic property of ice, presumably the ice is an important constituent of the particles forming these rings. But it is a white ice, which means it is more or less equally reflector for all wavelengths in the visible. By contrast, the particles of the rings A, B and C are less blue light reflectors in red light. Perhaps there is some additional substance present in small quantities, dust perhaps, that behave as a source of iron oxide red color. It has also been hypothesized that certain compounds generated by solar ultraviolet radiation were responsible for the reddish color.

In 1973, he explored the rings of Saturn with radar waves (wavelength of the order of centimeters) whose reflection detected with 64-meter antenna of the Deep Space Network at Goldstone, California. If they were much older, they would have appreciated the emission of thermal radiation. The low level of radiation that limits their size is no more than a few meters.

Data from the Voyager spacecraft have confirmed these findings. In one type of experiment is radio waves sent from the spacecraft to Earth through the rings, and measured the power scattered by the particles in the rings for various angles of deviation from the initial course of the waves.

And the dissemination of radar waves by particles in the rings makes it possible to detect particles on the order of the size of the radar wavelength, the solar light scattering to detect particles the size of a wavelength of light visible. The strong increase in brightness of a segment of the ring, when viewed at an angle to the forward spread is small, implies that in this segment, there are many particles of a micrometer scale.

Observation can be undertaken only when Saturn is between the Sun and astrophysicist. This condition can not be met for verified observations from Earth, but aboard a spacecraft. Thus, studies of the Voyager data indicate that the particle sizes of the order of a micrometer constitute a large proportion of the particles in the F ring, a significant proportion in many parts of ring B and a smaller proportion in the outer the ring. On the other hand, the C ring and Cassini division have no traces of such small particles.

The diffusion of light or some other form of electromagnetic radiation by particles of a ring to deduce the size of the particles that abound in the ring:

Light scattering particle size of 1 / 10 of the wavelength of incident radiation: diffuses the light almost equally in all directions.

Light scattering of a particle size of the order of the wavelength of incident radiation: diffuses the light forward.

Light scattering of a particle larger than the wavelength of incident radiation: diffuses the light from all angles, predominantly forward.

Radio Spots In The B Ring

In the central and most opaque B ring are oriented radially about disturbances in the form of a wedge. Each of which can be seen along a substantial fraction of the 10 hours that a particle of the ring B invests in making an orbital revolution. Meanwhile, new radio spots are emerging sporadically in other parts of the ring. Compared with their environment, radio spots appear bright in forward scattered light and dark light scattered back. Hence, the particle sizes of the order of a micrometer in radio spots abound.

Every part of a wedge radial orbits Saturn at the same rate as do the ring particles to its radial distance. The interior portions move more quickly, thus, a radio spot will eventually bowed and never disappear. The narrow end (the “spike”) of each radio spot appears to coincide approximately with the distance from Saturn at which the period of a particle in orbit equals the rotation period of Saturn. The magnetic field of Saturn is enclosed inside the planet rotates, therefore, with him. Hence the electromagnetic forces are partly responsible for the existence of radio spots. In this respect it may be noted that there were outbreaks of static bandwidth. The outbreaks appear to have originated in sources of the B ring near regions where the activity of the wedges was intense.

The observation that the diffusion of light particles in the radio spots Saturn’s B ring occurs predominantly forward to deduce that the wedges are local and transient concentrations of ring particles of micrometer size.

Over time, the profession was emerging towards the development and optimization of forestry, silviculture, harvesting, processing and transformation of forest products, specific infrastructures, etc… The discipline that covers the mountains engineering is also known as Forest Engineering, both in Latin America as in many other non-Spanish speaking places.

History

Documents published by the time illustrated at the time favored the development and expansion of this science in Spain. This is the case of the writer, jurist and Spanish politician Gaspar Melcher de Jove llanos with its Report on Land Law (1794). Also noteworthy is the work of political and French scientist Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau, with its many publications in the field of forestry and gardening , for example, his study for the optimization of production-logging silvicultural intended to shipbuilding ( 1731 ), the Treaty for the care and use of forests and woods, cutting, pruning, benefit and use of their timber and firewood ( 1773 ), or the gardener instructed or physical treatment of vegetation, cultivation and pruning of fruit trees ( 1798 ).

No less important was the contribution of Agustin Pascual, derived from his experience the Tharandt Forestry Academy (later renamed Forestry College )-School of Forestry Tharandt – founded by Heinrich Cotta in 1811 and located in the vicinity of Dresden , Germany. This study Institution forest is considered one of the oldest existing worldwide.

If you had to choose a legal settlement date of the Mammals as such in Spain, would be determined by the publication of the “General Ordinances of Forestry” in the year 1833, which led to the creation of the Body and statewide School of Forest Engineers.

In 1848 the Forestry Corps receives from His Majesty the King the power to exercise its business service analogous to the way it did in its day with Mining Engineers and Civil Engineers. The end of bureaucracy set the final date of establishment of the Corps in 1853.

Activity

The activity of the Forestry Engineers can be summarized in the following activities:

1. Improving the environment, goods and services of forestry.
2. Planning, design, reconstruction, maintenance and improvement of forest infrastructure and parks and gardens.
3. Preventing and extinguishing forest fires.
4. Projects and hydraulic and hydrologic studies.
5. Projects and environmental studies, nature conservation and management of wildlife and flora wild.
6. Management of natural areas.
7. Control and improvement of forest production and forest harvesting.
8. Industry from wood and forest products.
9. Project calculation and construction of wooden structures, metal and concrete associated with forestry and environmental surroundings.

This corresponds to the formal definition, as is reflected in the text of the UNE 166006:2006 Ex Management of R + D + I (Technological Surveillance System).

What is Technology Watch?

It is a systematic and ongoing process of searching, collecting, collection, analysis and dissemination of public information strategy in the organizational environment as well as environmental monitoring and analysis of skills. The search engine of the platform can be automated and consists of a tracking tool and mining of digital information.

Technology Watch encompass all types of documentation that may assist in the analysis and reflection on strategies for management. Encompassing information from:

• Fairs and Events
• Competitor Information
• News about the sector of activity of the organization
• Views on the sector (expert users)
• Publications of interest (standards, patents, newsletters)

Why it is necessary to Technology Watch

In a changing global environment in which skills and continuous process of innovation are part of the happening of the organizations is necessary for their survival know first hand all the actions and alerts that occur in the business sector entities.

Monitoring processes (knowing one’s environment and competitor, bulletins, regulations, patents) have always existed within the organizational structures, but today’s global environment:

• Rapid changes
• Information overload by the large impact of ICT
• Continuous search for innovation strategies as key to future

Necessitates the adoption of specialized tools to capture and document structuring relevant information for organizations.

Objectives and usefulness of the Technology Watch

The information processing can better understand the environment and reflect on the direction of organizational strategies. Among the technological surveillance aid organizations can report are:

• Understanding changes in technology and changes in markets close to our environment.
• Risk reduction decision-making, to better understand where we position ourselves with our strategies.
• Knowing the way forward, because it can meet the changing needs of our customers.
• Organizational efforts to bring new land and key trends of progress in all aspects of organizational innovation to production processes, products, human capital …
• Knowing the competition, seeking alliances with new partners or expert advice.

This whole process of capturing well-analyzed information becomes known to the company and its use within the organization in a practice known as Competitive Intelligence, which consists of analyzing the factors influencing the competitiveness of the company with the aim of generating competitive strategies and act successfully in the processes of generation of innovation in the global environment of Business Intelligence.

The surveillance system technology is a tool for collaborative nature. Access is required of all members on the platform to enter information that may be of interest to organizational, as well as consultation documents. Taking into account the establishment of some filters to access information that will be defined by the principal in charge of organizing this collaborative action can lead to a knowledge management strategy by creating feelings of cohesion and belonging among members of the organization who will be actors in the management strategies of the company.

Key performance indicators are metrics financial or otherwise, used to quantify objectives to reflect the performance of an organization, and are usually reflected in its strategic plan. These indicators are used in business intelligence to assist or help the current state of a business to prescribe a future course of action. The act of monitoring key performance indicators in real time is known as business activity monitoring. Performance indicators are often used to “value” difficult to measure activities and the benefits of leading development, employee engagement, service or satisfaction.

KPIs are typically tied to organizational strategy (as exemplified in techniques such as the balanced scorecard). The KPIs are “communication vehicles” allow senior executives to communicate the mission and vision of the company to lower hierarchical levels, directly involving all employees in achieving the strategic objectives of the company. Thus, the KPIs have as main objectives: to measure the level of service, make a diagnosis of the situation, communicate and report on the status and objectives motivating the teams responsible for compliance with the goals reflected in the KPI, steady progress.

Used to calculate, among others:

• Time spent on improving service levels in a given project.
• Level of customer satisfaction.
• Time improvement issues related to service levels.
• Quality impact of additional financial resources necessary to perform the defined service level.
• Profitability of a project (ROI )
• Quality of the management of the business ( inventory turnover , accounts receivable days DCC, and DCP Payable …)

For an organization, it is necessary that you can identify their own KPI’s. The key to this are:

• Having predefined in advance a business process.
• Have clear objectives / performance required in the business process.
• Having a quantitative / qualitative results and possible comparison with the objectives.
• Investigate variations and adjust processes or resources to achieve short-term

When defining KPI’s is usually applied the acronym SMART, because KPI’s must be:

• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Relevant
• Timely

What really is important?

The data on which they base their KPIs must be consistent and correct. These data must be available in time.

Hammer and Champy define reengineering processes as “the fundamental reconception and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in performance measures such as cost, quality, service and speed” (Source: Institute of Industrial Engineers, “Beyond Reengineering”, CECS, Mexico, 1995, p.4)

Therefore it is a fundamental reconception and a holistic view of an organization. Questions like: why do we do? And why we do as we do, lead to the internalization in the fundamentals of work processes.

The radical process reengineering is to some extent, as it seeks to get to the root of things, not just about improving processes, but mainly, for reinventing, in order to create competitive advantages daring, based on the technological advances.

Methodology Process Re-Engineering Schematic

As an ideal end, you can establish a methodology of “white paper”, which reinvents the whole structure and functioning of the process or organization. They maintain the aims and core business strategies, but it takes a total freedom of ideas. This methodology can be restricted to a greater or lesser advantage as existing processes, thus becoming part of the process redesign.

In either case, process reengineering creates direct and radical changes in circumstances that require the organization to successfully adopted:

• Sensitization to change.
• Strategic Planning.
• Scripting.
• Total Quality Management.
• Organizational Restructuring.
• Continuous Improvement.
• Shared values.
• Individual perspective.
• Behavior in the workplace.
• Final results.

Stages

The stages of reengineering can be:

• Identification of strategic and operational processes existing or needed, and creating a map (a model) of these processes.
• Ranking map for redesigning processes and identification of key processes, those that will be addressed first or interest.
• Development of the vision of the new improved processes.
• Reengineering (creation and redesign) process conducted by external consultants, internal experts, or a mixture of both.
• Preparation and testing of new processes (process drivers).
• Subsequent processes of continuous improvement.

Discovery

Asteroid 4 Vesta was discovered by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers March 29, 1807 year in Bremen. The name comes from the asteroid goddess of the hearth of the mythology of Rome – Vesta.

Orbit

Vesta asteroid’s orbit is tilted at an angle of 7.13 ° to the ecliptic, and its eccentricity is 0.09. It circulates in the body of an average distance of 2.36 me around the Sun, which needs 3 years and 230 days. It is the largest representative of the family asteroid Vesta.

Physical Properties

Westy sizes are 560 × 578 × 458 km, so it is an object of irregular shape. Albedo of Vesta is relatively large compared to other such objects, and is 0.423. Maximum brightness, which it can achieve, is 5.5 meters. It is absolute magnitude and reaches 3.2 meters.

Vesta is the second largest asteroid of the main belt (after 1 Ceres), its mass is estimated to be 2.71 × 10 20 kg, while the average density of 3.4 g / cm 3. This asteroid is spinning quite rapidly around its axis – in one rotation needs 5 hours, 20 minutes and 31 seconds.

Vesta is probably similar to the construction of the Earth group planets and has an iron core surrounded by a shell. The shell is composed mostly of basalt. The surface of this asteroid bears the traces of numerous collisions with other bodies, even very large. There are there impact craters with diameters up to 150 km, the frozen streams of lava, which could escape from the shell shock as a result of other objects or activities of the volcanic, but which ceased billions of years ago.

The largest crater on the surface of Vesta, which could be observed by the Hubble Space Telescope, is a swimming pool Impact Rheasilvia with a diameter of about 460 km, with a distinct central elevation. The shafts of the crater have a height of 4 to 12 km above the surrounding terrain and is located in the center mountain has a height of 23 km from the base (there are about three times higher than Earth’s Mount Everest ).

The research spectroscopic shows that on the surface of Vesta is not enough minerals containing water and hydroxides.

4 Vesta is also a likely source of origin of some falling on Earth of meteorites called achodndrytami, which broke away from her as a result of numerous collisions with other asteroids.

Research Missions

27 September 2007 NASA sent in the direction of Vesta and Ceres spacecraft Dawn. July 16, 2011 around 05:00 UTC on the initial probe entered orbit around Vesta. In August, Dawn spacecraft launched study asteroids, which will last until July 2012. During this time artificial satellite probed. Later, the probe will be in the direction of Ceres.

This is the first in the history of the probe which entered orbit of the object in the main asteroid belt.

Computer

Our computer is a machine that does that performing calculations on numbers, encoded as a sequence of symbols. These calculations will then turn a sequence of symbols into another. The suites are called symbols manipulated data, while the calculations that transform a string of “character” to another are called instructions.

A computer, whatever it is, just executes a sequence of instructions in a specific order of the data. Following instructions to be executed is called a program. In today’s computers, these symbols are 0 or 1, so the computer is using our binary.

Architecture of a RAM Machine

RAM the machine is a computer comprising:

• Of a computing unit, this will carry out instructions.
• A memory, something that is capable of retaining data in order to store and retrieve. This memory is divided into two sub-cases:
• A program memory, which stores the program instructions to perform in the order in which they must be calculated,
• Working memory, which stores the data (variables) that will handle the program,
• Of records , small high-speed memory that can store data temporarily,
• A bunch of output , a piece of paper on which our machine RAM will write the result of the program executed
• An input tape on which is inscribed the initial data set required for the program, which will be read by our machine RAM,
• A communication bus that will allow the transmission of data / instructions between the various components of the machine.

RAM

The computer memory used to store the program to run and its data. You can access the memory in two ways:

• In writing: data is stored in a memory.
• In reading: it retrieves a data / instruction memory.

The RAM memory of the machine has some peculiarities.

This memory is divided into memory cells. Each of these memory cells can store a number in the form of a sequence of symbols.

Our machine RAM needs to be able to select a memory cell among all the others to access its content and only content. For this, we assign to each memory cell an identifier, called a memory address. This address is a number assigned uniquely to a memory cell; two memory cells have two different memory addresses. It is said that the memory is addressable. We can therefore access a data in memory without having to read all the previous data (sequential access).

Finally, be aware that the time began to read (get) or write (modify) the contents of a memory cell is the same for all memory cells. There is no slower than the other.

The memory is:

• divided into memory cells,
• addressable
• Constant access time regardless of the selected memory cell.

A memory of this type is called in an electronic RAM. RAM is short for Random Access Memory.

Registers

A register is a small internal memory to a processor that will allow you to store a number, represented as a sequence of symbols. In today’s computers store these records as a result of 0 and 1, our computers using the binary representation. The following symbol represents a “number”.

Our machine has so RAM registers. Among these records, some have particular utility.

The Instruction Counter

Remember, a computer must perform a sequence of instructions in a specific order. Taking a program with a finite number of instructions, we can number each program instruction by a specific number from 1 to n. The last statement is a STOP command, which stops the operation of the machine RAM.

The instruction counter stores the number assigned to each instruction.

At the end of each statement, this counter is automatically increased by one (also called increments): this allows moving to the next instruction.

In today’s computers there are slight differences:

• Instructions are always stored in memory, but they are not numbered. The instruction counter then stores the address of the instruction in memory.
• The instructions may take several memory cells. The counter is not increased by 1 each time, but a number representing the number of memory cells occupied by the instruction.

The Accumulator

The register shall contain a copy of this data in RAM. It is on the data present in this battery will perform the processor instructions. But the processor can also get more data in RAM, in addition to the data present in the accumulator.

Instructions

We have seen that our machine has a RAM processor that executes instructions. These instructions can be additions, multiplications, for example, but can also do things a little more useful. Among these instructions include some instructions present in all the machines RAM:

• LOAD
• STORE
• JUMP
• …

Arithmetic Instruction

These instructions are simple calculations on numbers. These include for example:

• Addition,
• Multiplication,
• Division,
• Modulo
• Subtraction,
• Square root,
• Cosine
• …

The Logic Instructions

They are working on bits.

• AND,
• OR,
• XOR,
• NO.

LOAD and STORE Instructions

LOAD is used to copy a data present in memory in a register. STORE allows you to copy a data item contained in a register in the RAM.

Instructions Sequence Break

These instructions are called connections.

They can jump to an instruction other than the immediately following instruction and continue execution from the instruction. This allows the program to jump to an instruction located later in the normal course of the program, refer back to a previous instruction.

To do so, they modify the contents of the instruction pointer register, and places the address of the instruction to which you want to jump.

Connections can not comply with order of execution of instructions.

For example, a RAM machine is in the instruction number 5. If this instruction is an instruction sequence break, the machine will then RAM directly to the instruction number 60, rather than automatically proceed to the instructions.

The Test Instructions

These instructions are used to verify whether a proposal is valid or not.

The most common are:

• Test for equality: checks if two numbers are equal.
• Test of superiority: tests whether a number is greater than another.
• Test of inferiority: tests whether a number is inferior to another.
• Test of difference tests if two numbers a and b are different.

Instructions READ and WRITE

These instructions can write data on the input tape (for READ) and output (for WRITE). This allows representing in a highly simplified communication with the input-output. In reality, communication with an input or output is much more complicated than a simple statement!

Differences and Similarities with Current Computer

RAM the machine is very similar to today’s computers, but differs in some points.

Today’s computers, like RAM machines, have the following similarities with the machine RAM:

• The presence of books.
• Working memory is a RAM.

In a computer, nothing prevents the use of a memory whose access time is very dependent on the location of the data in memory as a hard disk. But all computers today use a RAM, for technical reasons.

But there are differences with a real computer. RAM in the machine, the input-output is modeled by bands on which you write a number in binary.

Notwithstanding these differences, today’s computers are usually RAM machines improved on some points, which we added a few niceties, such as a battery or cache. So these are machines RAM. But there are computers that are not improved RAM machines, nor any course of RAM machines! The first computers were not machines with RAM, and works with many different memories.